• Classes
• Objects
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Data Abstraction and Encapsulation

Other OOPs Features:

• Dynamic Binding
• Message Passing

Here are the five main features of OOPs

Classes:

public class Laptop
{
String modelName;
String manufacturerName;
String ram;
String memory;
String os;


void boot(){


}
}

Objects:

Laptop obj = new Laptop();
Laptop obj1 = new Laptop();
Laptop obj2 = new Laptop();

obj.modelName = " Pavilion 15";
obj.manufacturerName = "HP";
obj.ram = "4 GB";
obj.memory = "1 TB";
obj.os = "Windows";

Inheritance:

• It enables a class to acquire or get the properties from another class
• It makes code reusable
• It makes easier to add new features or methods to a class
• It provides an overriding feature which allows a child class to have a specific implementation of a method defined in the parent class

• Code Reusability
• Ease to add new feature
• Overriding

class Laptop extends Electronics
{


}

Polymorphism:

Data Abstraction and Encapsulation:

Other OOPs Features:

Dynamic Binding:

Message Passing:

Frequently Asked Questions

Counting figures sometimes sound too difficult if you don’t have an idea of how to solve them. In this article, we will be talking about tricks for counting figures problem.

These are most repeatedly asked reasoning questions. In this, a shape or a figure would be given to you and your task is to determine the shape and count it down within that particular shape.
For example, consider the below figure:

They simply ask in the question, how many triangles are visible in the given figure? Initially, it might look easy but it is obviously not! Without knowing tricks you can’t easily figure out correct answer.

Types of questions with Triangle Counting Problem Examples

• When a triangle  is divided  by  vertical lines

  • In such a case, we use can n (n+1)/2 where n is the number of triangles inside the main triangle

Q.  Find the number of triangles in the diagram

Number of  triangles  inside the  main triangle   =   4

4(4+1)/2

= 20/2    =    10

•  When a  triangle divided  by the horizontal lines

  • In such a case, count the number of horizontal lines that would give you the total number of triangles

Q.  Find the number  of figures  in the diagram

Total number of horizontal lines = 3

So total possible triangles are 3

• When a triangle has both vertical and horizontal lines

  • n(n+2)/2 (for vertical lines ) * number of horizontal lines

Q.  Find the number  of triangles in the diagram

Number of triangles from vertical lines (ignoring horizontal lines) = 3 = 3(3+1)/2 = 6

Horizontal lines  = 3

= 6* 3

= 18

• When a triangle has an inner triangle touching all of the edges of the outer one

  • In such a case, there always 4 figures are made and add 1 for the main triangle

Q.  Find the number  of triangles in the diagram

Starting from inner combination there are  = 4 triangle

outer combination there are  = 4 triangle

And for main  = 1

total = 9 triangles

• When a triangle has a triangle touching all of the edges of outer one and also has lines from each vertex of the main triangle touching edges of the inner one

  • In this first, ignore all the lines coming from corners of the triangle
  • Now the triangle you see would  be similar to the previous case triangle ( touching all the edges of outer triangle)
  • Count the number of triangles
  • After that consider lines coming from edges, each line would make 2 triangles
  • Now add them all together

Step 1.  If we ignore the lines coming from edges, the figure would look like

Step 2.  From the inner triangle, we will get 4, from outer one = 4, Main triangle = 1

Step 3. Total triangles = 9

Step 4. Now add lines which were removed previously, if each line creates 2 triangles then 3 lines would create = 3*2 =6 triangle

Step 5. Add them all. 9 + 6 = 15 triangles

•  When a triangle has multiple triangles made on horizontal lines 

  • If you look closely from every edge there would equal number of triangles
  • Count triangles from the base
  • Add them in a consecutive manner where the result of the previous one would be used as input for the next one. i.e 1 , 1 +2 = 3, 3+3=6, 4+6 =10′. Add all the sums together.
  • Now after adding them all up, also consider second last sum again
  • Also add it

Number triangles in each base = 3

Make a counting from 1 to 3

Add them up = 1 + 3 + 6 = 10

Now also consider second last item = 3

Total triangle 10 + 3 = 13

Counting Figures Practice Questions

1. How many triangles are there in the given figure?

2. How many triangles are there in the given figure?

3.  Find the number of triangles in the given figure :

Frequently Asked Questions:

What is the Figure Counting Reasoning?

It comes under non verbal reasoning section where one requires to identify and count the exact number of shapes present in the given figure or design.

Control statements provide an ability to execute a particular set of statements in a controlled manner. Basically, these statements are powerful statements that can mange the flow of a program.

Every programming language supports a basic form of Iteration statements that are known as loops, for example, While, Do-While and For loop.

Iteration statements are categorised as the control statements. It allows us to iterate through a piece of code repeatedly.

The goal of all looping statements is to run a particular block of statements frequently until a specific condition is met. However, Do-While and While loop follows a completely different approach to looping around a statement. Both types of loops are different from each other when it comes to their order of execution and condition evaluation.

What is a loop?

A loop can be defined as a control statement that enables repetitive execution of a block of code until a given condition turns out to be false. It provides capability to write a block of code and execute it repeatedly for specific number of times. Suppose, if a block of code needs to be executed repeatedly, in such case, we must use loops, instead of writing the same code multiple times.

Normally a looping statement comprises of following components:

• Control or counter variable initialization
• Condition evaluation
• Loop body execution
• Counter variable updation

There are primarily three types of loops  :
1) while loop
2) do while loop
3) for loop

The main difference between While and Do-While loop is that one evaluates condition first and then executes the loop body, whereas, other one executes the loop body first and then checks for the condition.

Difference between While and Do While Loop in Tabular form

Basis	While Loop	Do-While Loop
Definition	In this, the given condition is evaluated first, and then loop body is executed	In this, the given loop body is executed first and then after the given condition is checked
Loop Type	It is an entry-controlled loop	It is an exit-controlled loop
Loop Execution	The loop body would be executed, only if the given condition is true	The loop body would be executed at least once, even if the given condition is evaluated as false
Counter Variable Intialization	It allows initialization of counter variable before entering loop body	It allows initialization of counter variable before and after entering loop body
Semicolon	No semicolon is used as a part of syntax, while(condition)	Semi-colon is used as a part of syntax, while(condition);
Usage	It is used when condition evaluation is required to be evaluated first, before executing loop body	Do-While is used when one needs to enter into the loop body before evaluating condition. For example, Menu driven programs
Syntax	Syntax: while( condition ) { // loop body }	do { // loop body }while( condition );

While Loop

While Loop can be defined as the loop where the condition is evaluated first and then after the loop body is executed. It is an entry controlled loop.

Syntax:

while(condition)
{
// body
}

How while loop works?

• Counter or control variable initialization
• Then, condition would be checked
• If it is evaluated as true, then
• loop body would be executed
• Otherwise, the loop gets terminated

A Program example for While loop:

Example 1. C program to demonstrate working of while loop

Program

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{

  int i = 1;
  while (i < 5)
    {
      printf ("Print :: %d \n", i);
      i++;
    }
  return 0;
}

Output:

Print :: 1 
Print :: 2 
Print :: 3 
Print :: 4 

Explanation:

In the above example, we are simply initializing counter variable i with 1. And iterating using while loop until the condition  having i is less than 5 becomes false. In loop body, we are printing a message and incrementing counter variable on very next line.

Example 2. C program to show the approach difference of while loop with do-while

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=10;
while(i<10)
{
printf("I will not be executed as it is entry controlled loop");
i++;
}
getch();
}

Explanation:

Since, condition would be evaluated as false at very first place , no output would be printed. In this, counter variable ‘i’ was holding value 10. And at the entry point of while loop, when condition got evaluated for ‘i< 10’, it turned out to be false. As a result, the loop terminated.

Do-While Loop

Completely opposite to While loop, Do-While is a looping statement in which condition is checked after the execution of the loop body. It is a type of exit controlled loop.

Syntax:

do
{
// loop body

}whie(condition);

How do-While works?

• Counter or control variable initialization
• Loop body gets executed first and then-after the condition is evaluated
• If the condition is evaluated as true, then loop would proceed to next iteration
• Otherwise, it gets terminated

A  Program example of Do-While loop

Example 1. C program to demonstrate working of do while loop

Program:

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
  int i = 1;
  do
    {
      printf ("Print :: %d \n", i);
      i++;
    }while (i < 5);
  return 0;
}

Output:

Print :: 1 
Print :: 2 
Print :: 3 
Print :: 4 

Explanation:

In the above example, we are initializing counter variable i with 1. And iterating using do while loop until i is less than 5. In loop body, we are printing a message and incrementing counter variable on very next line. Lastly, we’re checking the condition and iterate accordingly.

Example 2. C program to show the approach difference of do-while loop with while

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
  int i=10;
  do
  {
  printf("I will be executed at once as it is exit controlled loop");
  i++;
  }while(i<10);
  getch();
}

Explanation:

Print statement would be executed at once, even though the condition is false. In this, counter variable ‘i’ was 10. In this, the loop body got executed first which resulted in print statement execution. And lastly, condition got evaluated for ‘i< 10’, it turned out to be false. As a result, the loop terminated.

Exit Controlled and Entry Controlled Loop

A loop that executes the loop body first and then checks for a condition is known as an exit controlled loop. For example Do-While loop.

On the other hand, a loop that checks for condition first and run the loop body can be categorized as entry controlled loop. For example, While loop, and For loop.

Selection Sort

Selection sort is a sorting technique wherein at each iteration, a minimum element is selected from an unsorted array and compared with all other remaining elements. if an element is found that is smaller than already assumed minimum element,  swapping would be performed.

It divides an array into two parts. One that is already sorted and another one which is still unsorted that need to be arranged.

From unsorted sublist, the algorithm finds the minimum element and adds on to sorted category. It ends when we get a single consolidated sorted sublist.

Pseudocode

FOR i=0 to Array.Length
minimum = i
FOR j=0 to Array.Length
if A[min]< A[j])
Swap A[min] with A[j]
End IF
END FOR
END FOR

C program to sort an array using Selection Sort in Ascending Order

#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#define size 5
void main()
{
int arr[size],i,j,temp,min;
printf("Please enter elements: \n "); 
for(i=0;i<=size-1;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&arr[i]);
}

for(i=0;i<=size-1;i++)
{
min= i;
for(j=0;j<=size-1;j++)
{
if(arr[min]<arr[j]){
temp = arr[j];
arr[j] =arr[min];
arr[min] = temp;
}
}
}

printf(" \n Entered Elements :");

for(i=0;i<=size-1;i++)
{
printf("\n %d ",arr[i]);
} 
getch();

}

Output:

How does Selection Sort work?

Lastly, it is an inefficient algorithm for the large dataset as it requires O(n²) comparisons in all cases worst, average and best case. It is simple and occasionally has an upper hand over other complicated algorithms.

For T_{2  Flip flop,}

For T₁ Flip flop,

Step 4: Lastly according to the equation got from K map create the design for 2 bit synchronous up down counter.

Related posts:

Design a 2 bit Synchronous down counter using T Flip flop?
Design a 2 bit Synchronous up counter using T Flip flop? 

These are the following steps to design a 2 bit synchronous down counter using T Flip flop:

Step 1: To design synchronous down counter, we just require to change the order of present state and next state, just put 0 where is 1 in synchronous up counter. In other words, start from 11 (3) to 00 (0)

Step 2: After that, we need to construct a state table with excitation table.
Note: To construct excitation table from state table you should know the excitation table of respective flip flop, in this case, it is T flip flop. So check the excitation table forT flip flop Which is:

T Flip Flop Excitation Table

Present state	Next State	T
0	0	0
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	0

So, the above table is the excitation table for T Flip Flop.

State Table with  excitation  table

Present State		Next State		Flip Flop
Q2	Q1	Q'2	Q'1	T2	T1
0	0	1	1	1	1
0	1	0	0	0	1
1	0	0	1	1	1
1	1	1	0	0	1

Above the table is created as per follow :

When Q₂ =1 which is present state and Q₂‘=1 which is next state then T₂ become 0 [As per excitation table, have a look ]
Similarly, if Q₂ is 1and Q₂‘ is 0 then T_{2 becomes} 1.
In a similar way, it goes on.

Step 3: After making the excitation table the next thing to do is dig out the equation from the boolean algebra or K map for the design of the counter. So For T₁ and T₂ we got 1 and Q₁‘ .

K-Map

 

For T_{2  Flip flop,}

 

 

 

 

T₂= Q₁‘

For T₁ Flip flop,

 

T₁=1

Step 4: Lastly according to the equation got from K map create the design for 2 bit synchronous down counter.

In above design T₁ is getting high input  and T₂ is getting input from the output of the T₁ which is complement of the output.  A clock is attached to it which is always high in blue color.

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Design a 2 bit Synchronous up counter using T Flip flop?

C Program to draw a hut in computer graphics

Program:

#include<graphics.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int gd=DETECT,gm;
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C:\\TURBOC3\\BGI");
printf("\t\t ********* HUT ********");
line(150,100,50,200);
line(150,100,350,100); 
line(150,100,300,200);
line(300,200,500,200);
line(350,100,500,200);
line(50,200,300,200);
rectangle(50,400,300,200);
rectangle(300,200,500,400);
rectangle(130,250,230,400);

getch();
closegraph();

}

Output:

These are the following step to design a 2 bit Synchronous up counter using T Flip flop

Step 1: To design a synchronous up counter, first we need to know what number of flip flops are required. we can find out by considering a number of bits mentioned in the question. So, in this, we required to make 2 bit counter so the number of flip flops required is 2 [2ⁿ where n is a number of bits].

Step 2: After that, we need to construct a state table with an excitation table.

Note: To construct an excitation table from the state table you should know the excitation table of the respective flip flop, in this case, it is T flip flop. So check the excitation table forT flip flop Which is:

T Flip Flop Excitation Table

Present state	Next State	T
0	0	0
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	0

So, the above table is the excitation table for T Flip Flop.

State Table with  excitation  table

Present State		Next State		Flip Flop
Q2	Q1	Q'2	Q'1	T2	T1
0	0	0	1	0	1
0	1	1	0	1	1
1	0	1	1	0	1
1	1	0	0	1	1

Above the table is created as per follow :

When Q₂ =0 which is the present state and Q₂‘=0 which is the next state then T₂ becomes 0 [As per excitation table, have a look ]
Similarly, if Q₂ is 0 and Q₂‘ is 1 then T_{2 becomes} 1.
In a similar way, it goes on.

Step 3: After making the excitation table the next thing to do is dig out the equation from the boolean algebra or K map for the design of the counter. So For T₁ and T₂ we got 1 and Q₁ .

K-Map

For T_{2  Flip flop,}

For T₁ Flip flop,

Step 4: Lastly according to the equation got from K map create the design for 2 bit synchronous up counter.

In the above design, T₁ is getting high input and T₂ is getting input from the output of the T₁ flip flop.  A clock is attached to it which is in blue colour.

These are the following steps to design a 4 bit synchronous up counter using T flip flop:

Step 1: To design a synchronous up counter, first we need to know what number of flip flops are required. we can find out by considering a number of bits mentioned in the question. So, in this, we required to make 4 bit counter so the number of flip flops required is 4 [2ⁿ where n is a number of bits].

Step 2: After that, we need to construct a state table with excitation table.
Note: To construct excitation table from state table you should know the excitation table of respective flip flop, in this case, it is T flip flop. So check the excitation table for T flip flop Which is:

T Flip Flop Excitation Table

Present state	Next State	T
0	0	0
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	0

So, the above table is the excitation table for T Flip Flop.

State Table with  excitation  table

Present State				Next State				Flip Flop
Q4	Q3	Q2	Q1	Q'4	Q'3	Q'2	Q'1	T4	T3	T2	T1
0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1
0	0	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1
0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1
0	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	1
0	1	0	0	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	1
0	1	0	1	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	1
0	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	1
0	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	1
1	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1
1	0	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1
1	0	1	0	1	0	1	1	0	0	0	1
1	0	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	1	1	1
1	1	0	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1
1	1	0	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	1	1
1	1	1	0	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	1
1	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1

Above  table is created as per follow :

When Q₄ =0 which is present state and Q₄‘=0 which is next state then T₄ become 0 [As per excitation table, have a look ]
Similarly, if Q₄ is 0 and Q₄‘ is 1 then T₃  become 1.
In similar way it goes on .

Step 3: After making the excitation table the next thing  to do is dig out the equation from the boolean algebra or K map for the design of the counter. So, for T₁ , T_2, T₃ and T₄ we got 1,  Q_1, Q₁.Q₂ and  Q₁.Q₂.Q₃

K-Map

 For T₄ Flip flop,

T₄  = Q₁.Q₂.Q₃

 

For T₃ Flip flop,

T₃= Q₁.Q₂

For T_{2  Flip flop,}

For T₁ Flip flop,

Step 4: Lastly according to the equation got from K map create the design for 4 bit synchronous up counter.

In above design T₁ is getting input logic 1 and T₂ is getting input from the output of the T₁ flip flop and T₃ is getting input from the output of T₁  and T₂ lastly, T₄ is getting input from the output of T₁ T₂ and T₃. A clock is attached to it which is in blue colour.

Related Posts:

Design a 3 bit synchronous up counter using T Flip flop?
Design a 2 bit Synchronous up counter using T Flip flop?

These are the following steps to Design a 3 bit synchronous up counter using T Flip flop:

Step 1: To design a synchronous up counter, first we need to know what number of flip flops are required. we can find out by considering a number of bits mentioned in the question. So, in this, we required to make 3 bit counter so the number of flip flops required is 3 [2ⁿ where n is a number of bits].

Step 2: After that, we need to construct state table with excitation table.
Note: To construct excitation table from state table you should know the excitation table of respective flip flop, in this case, it is T flip flop. So check the excitation table for T flip flop Which is:

T Flip Flop Excitation Table

Present state	Next State	T
0	0	0
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	0

So, the above table is the excitation table for T Flip Flop.

State Table with  excitation  table

Present State			Next State			Flip Flop
Q3	Q2	Q1	Q'3	Q'2	Q'1	T3	T2	T1
0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	1
0	0	1	0	1	0	0	1	1
0	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	1
0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	1
1	0	0	1	0	1	0	0	1
1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1
1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1
1	1	1	0	0	0	1	1	1

Above  table is created as per follow :

When Q₃ =0 which is present state and Q₃‘=0 which is next state then T₃ become 0 [As per excitation table, have a look ]
Similarly, if Q₃ is 0 and Q₃‘ is 1 then T₃  become 1.
In similar way it goes on .

Step 3: After making the excitation table the next thing  to do is dig out the equation from the boolean algebra or K map for the design of the counter. So, for T₁ , T₂ and T₃ we got 1,  Q₁ and Q₁.Q₂

K-Map

 

For T₃ Flip flop,

 

T₃= Q₁.Q₂

For T_{2  Flip flop,}

For T₁ Flip flop,

Step 4: Lastly according to the equation got from K map create the design for 3 bit synchronous up counter.

In above design, T₁ is getting input 1 and T₂ is getting input from the output of the T₁ flip flop and lastly, T₃ is getting input from the output of T₁  and T₂ . A clock is attached to it which is in blue colour.

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